Bloom's
Taxonomy is a classification of learning
objectives within education proposed in 1956 by a committee of
educators chaired by Benjamin Bloom
who also edited the first volume of the standard text, Taxonomy of
educational objectives: the classification of educational goals[1] (1956).[2][3] Although named after Bloom, the
publication followed a series of conferences from 1949 to 1953, which were
designed to improve communication between educators on the design of curricula
and examinations.[4][5] At this meeting, interest was
expressed in a theoretical framework which could be used to facilitate
communication among examiners. This group felt that such a framework could do
much to promote the exchange of test materials and ideas about testing. In addition,
it could be helpful in stimulating research on examining and on the relations
between examining and education. After considerable discussion, there was
agreement that such a theoretical framework might best be obtained through a
system of classifying the goals of the educational process, since educational
objectives provide the basis for building curricula and tests and represent the
starting point for much of our educational research."[6]
It refers to a
classification of the different objectives that educators set for students (learning
objectives). Bloom's Taxonomy divides educational objectives into three
"domains": Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor
(sometimes loosely described as knowing/head, feeling/heart and doing/hands
respectively). Within the domains, learning at the higher levels is dependent
on having attained prerequisite knowledge and skills at lower levels.[7] A goal of Bloom's Taxonomy is to
motivate educators to focus on all three domains, creating a more holistic form of education.[1]
Bloom's Taxonomy
is considered to be a foundational and essential element within the education
community as evidenced in the 1981 survey Significant writings that have
influenced the curriculum: 1906-1981, by H.G. Shane and the 1994 yearbook
of the National Society for the Study of Education.
A mythology has
grown around the taxonomy, possibly due to many people learning about the
taxonomy through second hand information. Bloom himself considered the Handbook[1] "One of the most widely
cited yet least read books in American education."[6]
Multiple Intelligences
Howard
Gardner of Harvard has identified seven distinct intelligences. This theory has
emerged from recent cognitive research and "documents the extent to which
students possess different kinds of minds and therefore learn, remember,
perform, and understand in different ways," according to Gardner (1991).
According to this theory, "we are all able to know the world through
language, logical-mathematical analysis, spatial representation, musical
thinking, the use of the body to solve problems or to make things, an
understanding of other individuals, and an understanding of ourselves. Where
individuals differ is in the strength of these intelligences - the so-called
profile of intelligences -and in the ways in which such intelligences are
invoked and combined to carry out different tasks, solve diverse problems, and
progress in various domains."
Gardner says
that these differences "challenge an educational system that assumes that
everyone can learn the same materials in the same way and that a uniform,
universal measure suffices to test student learning. Indeed, as currently
constituted, our educational system is heavily biased toward linguistic modes
of instruction and assessment and, to a somewhat lesser degree, toward
logical-quantitative modes as well." Gardner argues that "a
contrasting set of assumptions is more likely to be educationally effective.
Students learn in ways that are identifiably distinctive. The broad spectrum of
students - and perhaps the society as a whole - would be better served if
disciplines could be presented in a numbers of ways and learning could be assessed
through a variety of means." The learning styles are as follows:
Visual-Spatial - think in terms of physical space,
as do architects and sailors. Very aware of their environments. They like to
draw, do jigsaw puzzles, read maps, daydream. They can be taught through
drawings, verbal and physical imagery. Tools include models, graphics, charts,
photographs, drawings, 3-D modeling, video, videoconferencing, television,
multimedia, texts with pictures/charts/graphs.
Bodily-kinesthetic - use the body effectively, like a
dancer or a surgeon. Keen sense of body awareness. They like movement, making
things, touching. They communicate well through body language and be taught
through physical activity, hands-on learning, acting out, role playing. Tools
include equipment and real objects.
Musical - show sensitivity to rhythm and
sound. They love music, but they are also sensitive to sounds in their
environments. They may study better with music in the background. They can be
taught by turning lessons into lyrics, speaking rhythmically, tapping out time.
Tools include musical instruments, music, radio, stereo, CD-ROM, multimedia.
Interpersonal - understanding, interacting with
others. These students learn through interaction. They have many friends,
empathy for others, street smarts. They can be taught through group activities,
seminars, dialogues. Tools include the telephone, audio conferencing, time and
attention from the instructor, video conferencing, writing, computer
conferencing, E-mail.
Intrapersonal - understanding one's own
interests, goals. These learners tend to shy away from others. They're in tune
with their inner feelings; they have wisdom, intuition and motivation, as well
as a strong will, confidence and opinions. They can be taught through
independent study and introspection. Tools include books, creative materials,
diaries, privacy and time. They are the most independent of the learners.
Linguistic - using words effectively. These
learners have highly developed auditory skills and often think in words. They
like reading, playing word games, making up poetry or stories. They can be
taught by encouraging them to say and see words, read books together. Tools
include computers, games, multimedia, books, tape recorders, and lecture.
Logical
-Mathematical -
reasoning, calculating. Think conceptually, abstractly and are able to see and
explore patterns and relationships. They like to experiment, solve puzzles, ask
cosmic questions. They can be taught through logic games, investigations,
mysteries. They need to learn and form concepts before they can deal with
details.
At first, it may seem impossible to
teach to all learning styles. However, as we move into using a mix of media or
multimedia, it becomes easier. As we understand learning styles, it becomes apparent
why multimedia appeals to learners and why a mix of media is more effective. It
satisfies the many types of learning preferences that one person may embody or
that a class embodies. A review of the literature shows that a variety of
decisions must be made when choosing media that is appropriate to learning
style.
Visuals: Visual
media help students acquire concrete concepts, such as object identification,
spatial relationship, or motor skills where words alone are inefficient.
Printed words: There is
disagreement about audio's superiority to print for affective objectives;
several models do not recommend verbal sound if it is not part of the task to
be learned.
Sound: A
distinction is drawn between verbal sound and non-verbal sound such as music.
Sound media are necessary to present a stimulus for recall or sound
recognition. Audio narration is recommended for poor readers.
Motion: Models
force decisions among still, limited movement, and full movement visuals.
Motion is used to depict human performance so that learners can copy the
movement. Several models assert that motion may be unnecessary and provides
decision aid questions based upon objectives. Visual media which portray motion
are best to show psychomotor or cognitive domain expectations by showing the
skill as a model against which students can measure their performance.
Color: Decisions
on color display are required if an object's color is relevant to what is being
learned.
Realia: Realia are
tangible, real objects which are not models and are useful to teach motor and
cognitive skills involving unfamiliar objects. Realia are appropriate for use
with individuals or groups and may be situation based. Realia may be used to
present information realistically but it may be equally important that the
presentation corresponds with the way learner's represent information
internally.
Instructional Setting: Design should cover whether the materials are to be
used in a home or instructional setting and consider the size what is to be
learned. Print instruction should be delivered in an individualized mode which
allows the learner to set the learning pace. The ability to provide corrective
feedback for individual learners is important but any medium can provide
corrective feedback by stating the correct answer to allow comparison of the
two answers.
Learner Characteristics: Most models consider learner characteristics as
media may be differentially effective for different learners. Although research
has had limited success in identifying the media most suitable for types of
learners several models are based on this method.
Reading ability: Pictures facilitate learning for poor readers who benefit more from
speaking than from writing because they understand spoken words; self-directed
good readers can control the pace; and print allows easier review.
Categories of Learning Outcomes: Categories ranged from three to eleven and most
include some or all of Gagne's (1977) learning categories; intellectual skills,
verbal information, motor skills, attitudes, and cognitive strategies. Several
models suggest a procedure which categorizes learning outcomes, plans
instructional events to teach objectives, identifies the type of stimuli to
present events, and media capable of presenting the stimuli.
Events of Instruction: The external events which support internal learning
processes are called events of instruction. The events of instruction are
planned before selecting the media to present it.
Performance: Many
models discuss eliciting performance where the student practices the task which
sets the stage for reinforcement. Several models indicate that the elicited
performance should be categorized by type; overt, covert, motor, verbal,
constructed, and select. Media should be selected which is best able to elicit
these responses and the response frequency. One model advocates a behavioral
approach so that media is chosen to elicit responses for practice. To provide
feedback about the student's response, an interactive medium might be chosen,
but any medium can provide feedback. Learner characteristics such as error
proneness and anxiety should influence media selection.
Testing which traditionally is
accomplished through print, may be handled by electronic media. Media are
better able to assess learners' visual skills than are print media and can be
used to assess learner performance in realistic situations.
from "The Distance Learning
Technology Resource Guide," by Carla Lane
2. Theory of multiple intelligences
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences
This article
is about Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. For other uses, see
Intelligence.
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Abilities, traits and constructs
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Models and theories
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Fields of study
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The theory
of multiple intelligences was proposed by Howard Gardner in his 1983 book Frames of Mind:
The Theory of Multiple Intelligences as a model of intelligence that differentiates it into
specific (primarily sensory) "modalities", rather than seeing it as
dominated by a single general ability.
Gardner
argues that there is a wide range of cognitive abilities, but that there are only very weak
correlations among them. For example, the theory postulates that a child who
learns to multiply easily is not necessarily more intelligent than a child who
has more difficulty on this task. The child who takes more time to master
multiplication may best learn to multiply through a different approach, may
excel in a field outside mathematics, or may be looking at and understanding
the multiplication process at a fundamentally deeper level. Such a fundamental
understanding can result in slowness and can hide a mathematical intelligence
potentially higher than that of a child who quickly memorizes the
multiplication table despite possessing a shallower understanding of the
process of multiplication.
Intelligence tests and psychometrics have generally found high
correlations between different aspects of intelligence, rather than the low
correlations which Gardner's theory predicts, supporting the prevailing theory
of general intelligence rather than multiple intelligences (MI). The theory
has been widely criticized by mainstream psychology for its lack of empirical
evidence, and its dependence on subjective judgement. Certain models of
alternative education employ the approaches suggested by the theory.
ARAH
KECENDERUNGAN DAN
ISU DALAM
PENDIDIKAN MATEMATIKA
By: Husna (8136171028)
Pascasarjana Matematika
UNIMED
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